Islam, for believers, is a path to salvation. The Prophet of the faith, Mohammad, is seen as the last prophet, who was sent to complete the work that was announced in the Bible, with a definitive revelation contained in the Qu’ran.

The most important aspect of Mohammad’s life, as it is related in the Qu’ran, is his profound experience of God’s omnipotence. He harbored a deep conviction of God’s transcendence, and of the unbridgeable gap between humanity and the Almighty. The attitude of the devout believer in Islam is one of complete submission to the will of God. This obedience extends into every aspect of life, embracing law, economics, family life, social relations, government, and politics.

By the same token, because of his emphasis on the limitless grandeur of God, Mohammad also laid heavy stress on the idea that idolatry is the gravest of all offenses. Any opposition to monotheism qualifies as an unpardonable sin. Even Christianity, which receives some favorable treatment in the early sections of the Qu’ran, is later fiercely condemned because the doctrine of the Trinity is seen as a serious insult against the unity of God.

Mohammad began his public career as “God’s chosen one,” gained wide acceptance as a “messenger from God,” and became the head of an immense body of worshippers. The “revelation” which he professed became the path which millions have chosen to follow toward God.

In the Qu’ran, that religious path is set down in minute detail. Mohammad claimed to have received many divine messages, ranging from inspirations and locutions to conversations with the Archangel Gabriel. After the death of the Prophet, his followers gathered his thoughts and set them down in the authoritative text of the Qu’ran, which has been passed down unchanged to the 20th century.

The Qu’ran is divided into 114 chapters or suras, with each sura in turn marked off in aleyas or verses. The Qu’ran sets forth the preaching of Mohammad in no particular logical order: sometimes softening the laws of the Old and New Testaments, sometimes adding new commands. In these passages, believers find the definitive revelation of God’s will and of the means to salvation. In order to understand the role of the Qu’ran in the Islamic world, one must first recognize its claim to divine origin; because it is infallible, the Qu’ran demands utter obedience. Since this is God’s complete and unalterable message to mankind, Muslims reason that by believing in the Qu’ran and following its precepts, they can be sure that they are being faithful to God.

Along with the Qu’ran, Muslims also revere their religious tradition as a source of divine revelation. This tradition comes from three sources. First there is the life of the Prophet himself, which is taken as a model for his followers. Second there are the collections of Mohammad’s answers to various questions that his followers put to him, his warnings and exhortations to his people. These collections have been venerated by Muslims over the centuries, and passed down to the believers of the present day. Finally there is the evidence of the lives of Mohammad’s first disciples.

Together with this tradition, there are also commentaries on the Qu’ran by various notable Islamic scholars. These commentaries hold great interest for believers—not for their own sake, but because of the supernatural value of the Qu’ran itself. To the devout Muslim, of course, there can be no comparison between the value of the commentaries and that of the Qu’ran itself.

Theological difficulties

The text of the Qu’ran is fixed, but the meaning of many suras is obscure, and different readers can find different shades of meaning in the same texts. Over the years these differences of interpretation have given rise to varied theological schools within the world of Islam, and caused the division of the Muslim faithful into different sects, such as the Sunni and Shi’a, branches.

In Muslim theology there is a tension between belief in man’s free will and in predestination. The faith involves a heavy element of fatalism, which has its positive outcome in the call to enjoy all of God’s gifts to the full, and to be grateful for the gifts that one receives every day. Insofar as the tension between freedom and predestination can be resolved, the resolution entails an overriding belief that everything is in the hands of almighty Providence.

The history of Islamic theology is marked by the swings of a pendulum which always returns to the belief in a literal interpretation of the Qu’ran. This pattern is so clear that many students of the faith believe that Muslim “fundamentalism” is inevitable. Today, in a development that might seem odd to Western observers, many Muslims believe that the “progressive” view is the one that accentuates a return to a literal acceptance of the Islamic tradition. This “progressive” viewpoint traces the problems of Muslim societies to their contact with non-Muslim cultures, and argues that a return to traditional beliefs and practices will offer the only hope for preserving the faith—and thus the only hope for salvation.

Of course the center of all Islamic theology—of all Islamic life—is a belief in God: a God who is omnipotent and omni-present, the creator of heaven and earth and mankind. The God of Islam is also a provident God, who sustains creation, determines man’s destiny, a God who tests man during his earthly life, and rewards him in the afterlife.

The Islamic understanding of divine providence leaves no room for secondary causes; every event is attributed directly to the divine will. That logic can be taken to extremes. As the noted Islamic historian Ibn Jaldún wrote, “If an army triumphs, it is because God was on their side; if they fail, it is because he was not.” To each instance of human suffering or joy, the only proper response is an unequivocal acceptance of God’s will. This belief in what seems ultimately to be the arbitrary exercise of divine will—made all the more forceful by the stress on God’s omnipotence—is difficult to reconcile with a belief in human freedom. In practice, this difficulty often gives rise to the attitude that is summed up in an American proverb: “God helps those who help themselves.”

In Islamic theology, all that is evil in the world can be attributed either to the wrongs that men do, or to the punishment that God metes out to men on account of their misdeeds. On no account, however, can any evil be attributed to the will of God, since he is always loving and merciful. Theologians attempt to resolve some difficulties by saying that human actions fall into two different categories; on the natural level there is some room for freedom of action, while on the supernatural level everything is determined by God’s unchanging will. On both the natural and the supernatural plane, Islamic scholars stress, God’s will is both omnipotent and inscrutable.

Finally, Islam portrays God as the judge who will reward or condemn man for his behavior. As with Christianity, Islam teaches that there is a particular judgment after the moment of death, and then a final judgment of all mankind. Islamic theology has room for a purgatory, which is reserved primarily for Jews and Christians, who held a part of revelation but did not accept the fullness of God’s message. The faith of the Qu’ran also speaks of a heaven in which different souls enjoy the beatific vision in differing degrees, as determined solely by God’s decree. For all of the elect—all of the faithful—there will be endless earthly joys. Hell, on the other hand, is reserved for unbelievers: for atheists and apostates, who will suffer punishment in both body and soul. Those who do evil on earth may be consigned to hell, but if they are believers, the Prophet will eventually take them to heaven.

In a striking illustration of the Islamic emphasis on the omnipotence and transcendence of God—and in contrast with their Christian counterparts—Muslim theologians make no effort to probe the divine mysteries. Man’s ignorance is seen as much greater than man’s knowledge, so that any attempt to rely on human reasoning would be evidence of an impious, obstinate attitude. So Islam must be understood on its own terms: not as a way of knowing God, but rather as a means of salvation through submission to God’s will.

Prayer

Prayer is an indispensable element of Islamic religious practice. The prayer of a devout Muslim is prayer of reverential awe, of thanksgiving, and of submission. Since there is no possibility of penetrating the mystery of God, and no Trinitarian doctrine of distinct persons within the godhead, the believer does not attempt to achieve any sort of intimacy with God. In prayer the Muslim’s relationship to God is that of a slave to his master—a far cry from the Christian model of the child addressing his father.

How can the believer develop a relationship with a God who is so far beyond understanding? How can he address a God who is so far removed from human affairs? These questions have prompted Muslim thinkers to explore a variety of forms of mysticism. But the most important response to God is made in ritual prayer.

In Islamic societies, the muezzin sounds the call to ritual prayer five times a day: at dawn, midday, mid-afternoon, dusk, and nightfall. In order to be properly performed, these ritual prayers should be preceded by ritual ablutions; by washing the believer purifies his body, as preparation for the purification of his soul in prayer. The ritual ablutions are preliminary steps, helping the Muslim to attain an attitude of prayer. These ritual prayers can be held in a mosque or in any place set off for worship—even a small prayer mat. By removing his shoes the believer shows that he is walking on holy ground; by turning toward Mecca, he shows his unity with all his fellow Muslims.

Ritual prayer always begins with the formula: “God is great.” This is followed by the recitation of verses from the Qu’ran and other prayers. The prayer is accompanied by a series of gestures: the faithful stand, incline their heads, kneel, and touch their foreheads to the ground at the appropriate moments. The prayer concludes with a confession of faith, the Prophet’s blessing, and an exchange of greetings among the faithful.

Community prayer takes place on Fridays, and all men are expected to participate in the services at the mosque. (Women are restricted to a separate area within the mosque.) The communal prayer emphasizes fraternal sentiments, calling for pardon and reconciliation among the faithful. Friday is also the day for preaching, which may cover any topic from a wide range of social, political, and spiritual themes.

Ascetical practices

Fasting, too, is an integral part of Islamic religious life. Acts of self-denial are seen as the best means of repenting for one’s sins, and thus being purified. In Ramadan, the month of fasting, Muslims avoid all food and drink during the daylight hours. Ramadan fulfills a function similar to that of Lent for Christians; it is a special time for interior discipline and conversion of the heart. For those who are unable to maintain the fast, almsgiving is a substitute. In fact almsgiving is always highly recommended in Islam; the faith places a strong emphasis on care for the needy, and on extending hospitality toward guests and wayfarers.

For Christians, ascetical practices are best understood as a struggle of love responding to love, and a preparation of the soul for intimacy with God. In Islam, on the other hand, the spiritual life consists in successive acts of conversion and appeals for divine forgiveness, which are acted out through prayer, fasting, and works of mercy. Rather than habits to be developed, the virtues are seen as attitudes, which come from acceptance of God’s law. The most important virtues involve submission to the divine will: humility, patience, and obedience. Islam also stresses fraternity among believers and respect for life, as signs of one’s acceptance of God’s plan.

Islam does have a place for sacrifice, in which animals are used as a sign of one’s offering of his heart to God. But there is no priesthood, properly speaking; the imam is a spiritual guide, to be revered for his understanding of the faith, rather than a mediator between God and man. And the mosque is not a sacred place set aside for ritual sacrifice, but a house of prayer and brotherhood.

Every aspect of Muslim spiritual life is prescribed in the text of the Qu’ran. Since these prescriptions are taken as divine commands, they are not to be interpreted, but simply followed, and incorporated into one’s life, with complete docility. The Qu’ran embraces and defines every aspect of life for the devout Muslim. In its suras, in the unchanging Arabic text, can be found the answers to questions about prayer and fasting, sin and punishment, law and justice, family life and human relationships. Since God cannot be represented, Muslim households display texts from the Qu’ran, much as Christians might display statues. The Qu’ran is authoritative only in Arabic, and that language, so full of evocative images, lends an air of poetry to the text—often at the expense of clarity. Nothing is more expressive of the Arabic soul than the language of the Qu’ran.

Islamic law

Islam has established the Qu’ranic law, which gathers together the great principles that must be believed and observed by those who hope for eternal reward. The fulfillment of this law is necessary to salvation, but the law must always be recognized as subordinate to the will of God, who mercifully ordained it. The most important principle of the law is faith in that one God, and in Mohammad his prophet. Always starting from that basic belief, the Qu’ran goes on to teach about the existence of angels, who help men along the way. The Qu’ranic law looks forward to a judgment at the end of time, and a heavenly reward for faithful Muslims. For Jews and Christians there is purgatory—provided that they are not apostate Muslims. For the infidel, damnation is a certainty, since there can be no pardon for the sin of failure to recognize God and his revelation.

In the Islamic view of the afterlife, heaven is divided into various levels, with believers assigned to the different levels according to their love of God, obedience to the divine will, and performance of good works. However, these rewards must always be regarded as pure gifts from God, whose judgment cannot be determined or swayed by any human actions.

The Qu’ranic law encompasses all aspects of life. Although it takes human weakness into account, and emphasizes God’s mercy, the law must be obeyed in all its particulars. Islamic morality can be highly specific, judging even the smallest of human actions on the basis of whether or not they follow the dictates of God’s law. Sins are classified as more or less grievous according to their influence on man’s quest for salvation. But even the most serious sins can be forgiven, since God is clement and merciful. To attain forgiveness the believer must repent for his sins, atone for them, and have faith. That final requirement —faith—accounts for the gravity of the sins of incredulity or apostasy, which eliminate any possibility of forgiveness.

Islamic law penalizes blasphemy, murder, theft, adultery, prostitution, and homosexual acts. It calls for justice, and places a high value on the search for truth. Polygamy is allowed, since women outnumber men; men are allowed as many wives as they can adequately feed, up to a limit of four, and an unlimited number of concubines. However, husbands are enjoined to show affection for their wives, and—within their clearly defined roles—women are held in high esteem in the family and in Muslim society.

Matrimonial law requires women to marry only Muslims; men are allowed to take Christian or Jewish wives. But all children—even those of mixed marriages—must be brought up in the Muslim faith. The women of the society educate children until they reach puberty; at that point they are separated by sex, and the boys are taken under the tutelage of their fathers. As the first teachers, Muslim women have been the great conduits of the faith; they introduce their children to prayer, the reading of the Qu’ran, the ritual ablutions, and the dietary laws.

The law imposes five important obligations on all Muslims:

•    the chachada, or profession of faith;
•    the performance of ritual prayer five times each day—and on Friday, communal prayer at the mosque;
•    zakat, or almsgiving, and hospitality toward guests;
•    fasting during Ramadan for everyone over the age of 14; and
•    a hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca, at least once in one’s life.

The requirement of a pilgrimage to Mecca springs from the belief that Islam is the religion of Abraham, revealed at first in the laws of Judaism and later in the Gospels, and now finally completed in the Qu’ran. During his time on earth, the pious adherent to this faith should return at least once to the holy city of Mecca, where (as the Qu’ran tells him) Abraham first built a shrine to God. When Mohammad and his original followers expelled the infidels from Mecca, the only thing that remained was that shrine, the Ka’aba, which is the ultimate object of the Muslim’s pilgrimage.

Nothing in the Islamic law requires a Muslim to be a martyr for his faith; he is only called to believe. In adverse situations, therefore, it may be morally permissible to feign apostasy—provided that the believer continues to maintain his interior faith in God and in the Prophet. This law of taqiya or dissimulation explains how, in 16th-century Spain, for example, many Muslims accepted baptism, and even fulfilled their external obligations to Christianity, while still secretly preserving the practice of their Islamic faith within their own households. Throughout history—indeed, to this day—this practice has given rise to some serious political problems. When Muslims have gained political control in various countries, they have generally been quick to establish Islamic law, holding all religions in disfavor if they are not actually banned. The tolerance practiced and preached by Muslims appears highly selective; it is much more in evidence when they are in the minority.

Jesus in Islam

In Islam the figure of Jesus is held in high esteem. He is considered one of the greatest prophets, a man of great holiness and an excellent moral teacher, who is destined to be together with God at the final judgment. Many passages of the Qu’ran are taken from the Gospels, and the text is not sparing in its praise for Jesus.

Mary, the mother of Jesus, is also highly praised in the Qu’ran for her sanctity and her virtue. Muslims, like Christians, believe that she remained a virgin while she gave birth to Jesus.

However, Islam cannot accept the divinity of Christ. It is an essential tenet of the faith that God’s nature is unique and indivisible, and could not possibly allow distinct persons in one godhead. Hence Muslims do not place any special significance on the death of Jesus, or believe in his Resurrection. From a Christian perspective the teaching of Islam presents a severely distorted view of the nature of Jesus and his mission on earth; there is no room in Islam for the Incarnation or Redemption. Indeed, as Muslims see it, what man needs from God is not redemption but mercy. So the term “the Word of God,” which holds such a transcendent role in Christian theology, is reduced to a mere figure of speech in Islam.

Jesus is depicted in the Qu’ran as the last prophet to appear on earth before the arrival of Mohammad. But it is Mohammad who is “the seal of the prophets,” who comes to confirm the teachings that God has revealed to man through the prophets, and to clarify the terms of the covenant that was first established with Abraham. With the teachings of Mohammad is the final, complete revelation, which is now set for all time.

The Reduction of Revelation

Whoever knows the Old and New Testaments and then reads the Qu’ran clearly sees the process by which it completely reduces Divine Revelation. It is impossible not to note the movement away from what God said about himself, first in the Old Testament through the prophets, and then finally in the New Testament through his son. In Islam all the richness of God’s self-revelation, which constitutes the heritage of the Old and New Testaments, has definitely been put aside.

Some of the most beautiful names in the human language are given to the God of the Qu’ran, but he is ultimately a God outside the world, a God who is only majesty, never Emmanuel, God-with-us. There is no room for the Cross and the Resurrection. Jesus is mentioned, but only as a prophet who prepares for the last prophet, Mohammad. There is also mention of Mary, his virgin mother, but the tragedy of redemption is completely absent. For this reason not only the theology but also the anthropology of Islam is very distant from Christianity.

Nevertheless, the religiosity of the Muslims deserves respect. It is impossible not to admire, for instance, their fidelity to prayer. The image of believers in Allah who, without caring about time or place, fall to their knees and immerse themselves in prayer remains a model for all those who invoke the true God, in particular for those Christians who, having deserted their magnificent cathedrals, pray only a little or not at all.

—from Crossing the Threshold of Hope, by Pope John Paul II