| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Dossier
Understanding the Eastern Catholic Churches
"I believe that one important way to grow in mutual understanding and unity consists precisely in improving our knowledge of one another."
- Pope John Paul II, Orientale Lumen, 24
By Ernest Davison
Although they represent less than 2 percent of the world's
total Catholic population, the Eastern-rite Catholic churches
may wield an enormous influence over the future of the universal
Church.
Perhaps by pure coincidence, or perhaps by God's design, the
Eastern churches today are strongest in some of the world's most
volatile regions. They could play a pivotal role in the history
of the next century; they will certainly have a disproportionate
impact on the progress of the ecumenical movement.
In the Middle East, the Eastern churches help to preserve a
foothold for Catholicism in the birthplace of Christianity--a
region where today Christians face an increasingly hostile social
climate. In Eastern Europe, where differing religious traditions
helped to preserve a distinct sense of ethnic identity for peoples
who suffered under Communist repression, the resurgence of the
Eastern Catholic churches has contributed to a new spirit of national
pride.
But in each case, the position of the Catholic churches is
complicated by their coexistence with the local Orthodox churches.
Pope John Paul II has made it a special task of his pontificate--and
one of his principal goals for the celebration of the Christian
jubilee year of 2000--to open the way for reunion between the
Roman Catholic Church and her cousins in the Orthodox world. That
task will involve the careful unraveling of centuries-old disputes
and mutual antagonisms between individual Catholic churches and
their Orthodox counterparts. In the delicate work of ecumenism,
then, the Eastern-rite Catholic churches will again find themselves
on the cutting edge of historical progress.
The demands of ecumenical diplomacy have recently been illustrated,
oddly enough, by developments in England--certainly not a country
with a strong Eastern tradition. As they leave the Church of England
and seek full communion with Rome, many Anglo-Catholics have suggested
the creation of a new rite within the Catholic Church, set up
to preserve their own religious traditions and serve their own
pastoral needs. In the context of Catholic history that suggestion
makes eminent good sense; many of the Eastern-rite Catholic churches
were created through just such arrangements. But would the establishment
of an Anglo-Catholic rite constitute an affront to the Church
of England, and thus a setback for the cause of ultimate reunion?
In England--as in Eastern Europe, and in the Middle East--that
consideration weighs heavily in the balance.
Quite apart from their influence on world politics and ecumenical progress, the Eastern churches also offer a treasure-trove of spirituality, from which other Catholics can easily gain new insights. A healthy Church, the Holy Father has said, must breathe deeply with both lungs, combining the best of both Eastern and Western traditions. In his 1995 apostolic letter Orientale Lumen he called upon the Catholic majority of the Latin rite to learn more about the rich spirituality of the Eastern churches. Toward that end Catholic World Report presents this introductory survey of the Catholic churches of the East--explaining who they are, how they came into existence, and the challenges they face today.
- The Editor
They have their own hierarchies, their own liturgical and spiritual
traditions, even their own code of canon law. To the casual observer,
the Catholic Churches of the Eastern rites might appear indistinguishable
from their Orthodox neighbors. Yet the 17 million Catholics who
belong to these churches are full and equal members of the one
universal Catholic Church, in full communion with the Holy See.
In fact, viewed from the Eastern perspective, the Western or "Latin"
Church, which is so frequently considered synonymous with Catholicism,
is only one among many churches. As one Byzantine bishop recently
put it, "People often forget that the Western Church is only
one of the 22 distinct churches forming the universal Church The
other 21 are all Eastern Catholic churches."
In most cases--the Maronite Catholics are the notable exception--the
Eastern-rite Catholic churches were formed by Christians who sought
reunion with Rome, having been members of an Eastern church which
had been separated from the Holy See. Thus most Eastern-rite churches
have a direct counterpart within the Orthodox communion--a fact
which compounds the confusion of many Western observers. To understand
the Eastern Catholic churches, one must first understand the history
of divisions which has produced the Eastern churches of the Orthodox
world.
Most Westerners have at least a passing familiarity with the "great
schism" of the 11th century--the debate over the "filioque"
clause, the mutual excommunications of 1054, and the complext
political intrigues that finally culminated in the definitive
rupture between Rome and Constantinople. But in fact that division
was the third and last in a series of breaks that led to the growth
of the separate Eastern churches.
When the Council of Ephesus condemned the Nestorian heresy in
431, many Nestorians fled into Persia, where they were safe from
the authority of Rome. There they established their own church
hierarchy: the Assyrian Church of the East. Missionaries from
the Assyrian Church spread their influence eastward into India,
and the Christian community there fell under the Nestorian influence.
The second major break came within the same generation. At the
Council of Chalcedon in 451, the Catholic Church formally declared
that Jesus has two natures, human and divine. The formula used
to proclaim that truth proved unsatisfactory to many bishops from
the Byzantine empire, who--prompted by political considerations
as well--broke with Rome to form what are now known as the Oriental
Orthodox churches: the Armenian, Coptic, Ethiopian, and Syrian
Orthodox churches. The tragedy of this second division is compounded
by the fact that most theologians--Roman Catholic and Oriental
Orthodox alike--the disagreement precipitated by Chalcedon is
not a fundamental one; the two sides could both support another,
more carefully constructed formula to express the Christological
beliefs which they share in common.
AUTONOMY AND INDEPENDENCE
Finally, the rupture between Rome and Constantinople gave rise
to the largest of the Eastern churches, the Orthodox Church, with
its profusion of national branches. Today the Orthodox world generally
recognizes 13 "autocephalous," or self-governing, independent
churches, each with its own hierarchy. Among these the Russian
Orthodox Church is by far the largest, with 50 million believers.
But the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, who presides over
his own church of 3.5 million Greek Orthodox believers, remains
the "first among equals" within the Orthodox hierarchy.
Almost immediately after the great schism, the two great churches
sought to bridge the chasm that now separated them. At the Councils
of Lyons (1274) and Florence (1439), the Catholic Church proudly
announced a reunion with the Byzantine churches; in Florence the
Church even went so far as to recognize the primacy of the Ecumenical
Patriarch, declaring that he stood second in honor only to the
Roman pontiff. But these efforts ultimately proved futile. The
chasm between the two churches grew wider.
Over the years, missionaries sent eastward from Rome had some
notable successes in convincing individual Christian communities
to restore their ties with the Holy See. These groups were allowed
to keep their own distinctive religious traditions, and thus the
Eastern-rite Catholic churches were born. In the case of the Eastern
churches that sprang up after the Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon--the
Assyrian and Oriental Orthodox churches--the new Eastern-rite
Catholic bodies matched neatly with their Orthodox counterparts
[see accompanying box]. The complex ethnic allegiances of Eastern
Europe make it difficult to form such an exact one-to-one comparison
between the Orthodox and Catholic churches, but the same basic
principle applies: the Byzantine-rite Catholic churches were formed
by Orthodox communities seeking to restore their ties with the
universal Church.
The independent governance that characterizes the Eastern churches
is a source of both pride and concern, not only to the Orthodox
but also to those communities which have returned to communion
with Rome. Over the centuries many Catholic groups have broken
away from Rome because they resented encroachments on their autonomy,
(and some Orthodox communities have sued for reunion with the
Holy See because they felt other Orthodox leaders were meddling
in their affairs). Eastern Catholics are keenly aware that they
are vastly outnumbered within the Catholic Church, and constantly
wary of attempts to "latinize" their liturgy or their
pastoral practices. In fact, that sensitivity is so pronounced
that the term "uniate," once commonly used to describe
the Eastern churches in union with Rome, has fallen into disfavor;
Eastern Catholics find the term derogatory, believing that it
implies they have surrendered their autonomy.
In 1995 Pope John Paul promulgated the apostolic letter Orientale
Lumen, written to commemorate the 100th anniversary of Orientalium
Dignitas, in which Pope Leo XIII promised to uphold the specific
traditions of the Eastern churches. The Pope's strong expression
of support for the Eastern tradition drew an appreciative response
from Bishop Andrew Pataki, the Byzantine Catholic Eparch of Parma,
Ohio, who pointed to the positive ecumenical implications. "The
Orthodox, when they consider the possibility of reunion with the
Holy See, look to see how the Eastern churches are being received,"
he said. "They want to see that they are respected and properly
accepted."
A RICH TRADITION
Indeed, the distinctive traditions of the East have a great deal
to offer the Catholic Church. Pope John Paul placed special emphasis
on the monastic tradition, which was established in the Byzantine
churches long before the great schism. The highly developed liturgies
of the Eastern rites, the intense familiarity with the wisdom
of the early Church fathers, a deeply incarnational theology which
pervades every aspect of religious life--all these characteristics
enrich those Catholics who come into contact with them. It is
no accident that in each of the last two years, John Paul has
chosen an expert on Eastern theology to preach the annual Lenten
retreat for the papal household.
The clergy of the Eastern churches have their own disciplines, too.
While the Latin rite has only recently restored the permanent
deaconate (and the exact role of permanent deacons is still ill
defined), the deacon has long played an extensive role in the
Byzantine liturgy. Several of the Eastern churches are headed
by patriarchs, who exercise a unique and powerful unifying role.
Patriarchs are elected and enthroned by the bishops of their church.
After his enthronement, tradition dictates that he should appeal
to the Holy Father for a maintenance of full communion with Rome.
Within the churches headed by patriarchs, individual bishops are
appointed by the synod of bishops, from a list of candidates approved
by Rome. (In the Latin rite this process is usually reversed;
the Holy See selects a bishop from a list offered by the bishops
of the country.) Oddly enough, patriarchs are generally not
members of the college of cardinals. The cardinals are the titular
pastors of the parishes of Rome, who gather at each papal conclave
to elect the next Bishop of Rome. Since Rome is a diocese of the
Latin rite, some Eastern prelates believe it would be inappropriate
to become involved in that process.
Of course in Western eyes the most interesting feature of the
Eastern-rite clergy is the discipline that is not observed;
priests are allowed to marry. (Bishops, however, must be celibate.
As a result many bishops are members of religious orders--a factor
which has strengthened the monastic traditions of the East.) In
the United States, the Eastern churches have reluctantly agreed
to suspend their usual practices, and ordain only celibate men
as priests, in order to avoid conflicts with their Latin neighbors.
Although the 21 Eastern Catholic churches are distinct and separate,
they are governed by the terms of the same canon law. Promulgated
in 1990, the new Code of Canons for the Eastern Churches is itself
distinct from the Code of Canon Law that governs the Latin Church.
Ernest Davison is a free-lance writer, currently based
in New York. In preparing this Dossier, he relied heavily on the
work of Father Ronald Roberson, whose book The Eastern Christian
Churches (Edizioni Orientalia Christiana, 1993) is the single
best work available on the subject.
ORTHODOX CHURCHES AND CATHOLIC COUNTERPARTS
Assyrian
Assyrian Church of the East Chaldean Catholic Church
Assyrian Church of India Syro-Malabor Catholic Church
Oriental Orthodox
Armenian Apostolic Church Armenian Catholic Church
Coptic Orthodox Church Coptic Catholic Church
Ethiopian Orthodox Church Ethiopian Catholic Church
Syrian Orthodox Church Syrian Catholic Church
Malankara Orthodox Church Syro-Malankara Catholic Church